Introduction
The concept of “water security” refers to the availability of high-quality water in sufficient quantity and size to safeguard the environment against drought, biodiversity loss, and food security concerns. Based on this concept, it is imperative that all citizens of a country have access to an adequate supply of clean water to meet their needs.[1] Water security is undeniably essential for guaranteeing the enjoyment of the right to water, which is recognized as one of the most crucial human rights.[2] This is particularly significant for communities located in arid and water-stressed regions. Governments in such societies must utilize their full capacity and resources to assist their citizens in addressing water crises. However, international cooperation and assistance also play a vital role in the present era. The imposition of international sanctions or unilateral actions against certain countries not only hinders international assistance but also prevents states from collaborating with private entities to ensure water security through the development of infrastructure and the acquisition of necessary tools. A concrete illustration of the impact of such measures is the unilateral sanctions imposed by the United States against the Islamic Republic of Iran, which have adverse effects on ensuring water security and access to high-quality water. These consequences are particularly concerning given that Iran is identified as one of the areas with high water stress and vulnerability, according to a joint report by the World Health Organization and UNICEF.[3]
Necessary Considerations
In relation to the water crisis and its impact on Water Security in the country, it is crucial to address the issue of mismanagement in environmental governance, as well as the effects of weather phenomena. Furthermore, there have been recent initiatives, such as the establishment of water supply projects, and several Iranian knowledge-based companies have successfully designed and constructed vital facilities for water supply and treatment projects. Despite these commendable efforts, the detrimental effects of sanctions persist, and Iran continues to suffer from this issue. This problem was highlighted in the 2022 report on Iran by the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights.[4] Similar challenges can also be observed in the Persian Gulf countries; however, Iran lags behind in certain facilities compared to them. It is important to note that water is a critical component of energy supply, and the availability of electrical power is reliant on water resources as well. In recent years, due to high temperatures and limited water reserves in the country, power outages in residential and industrial areas of Iran have been significant.
Concise Points on the Impacts of Sanctions on Ensuring Water Security in Iran
The imposition of banking and financial sanctions on Iran has significantly impeded economic and commercial exchanges. The private sector, merchants, and foreign investors refrain from trading and investing in Iran due to these sanctions and the high risk associated with commercial transactions. As a result, private actors involved in water supply and water treatment facilities and infrastructure are reluctant to cooperate with Iran. For instance, in 2019, it was decided to establish a joint consortium involving Iranian companies and Chinese investment for a large-scale water transfer project to the northeast of Khuzestan. Unfortunately, due to the sanctions, the Chinese investor declined to proceed with the agreement.[5] It is worth noting that the Khuzestan province is particularly affected by the water crisis.
This example is just one of several instances where cooperation has been suspended due to sanctions. According to the 2022 report by the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council, numerous projects involving dam construction and water and sewage treatment technology in Iran, which were intended to be executed in collaboration with foreign experts, faced challenges due to their withdrawal.[6] In 2021, Hassan Rouhani (the then-president) announced that the sanctions imposed by Trump prevented over four billion dollars from being invested in the water and electricity sectors.[7]
A 2020 report by one of the research centers of the Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran confirms the severe impact of sanctions on ensuring water security in the country. “According to this report, the implementation of certain projects aimed at addressing drinking water problems in certain cities of the country requires equipment such as pumps and Sewage treatment plants (STPs) parts. These projects face significant delays or may not be operationalized at all due to the lack of necessary equipment and parts, even when the physical progress is at 95% completion”.[8] In addition to addressing the issue of parts shortages, securing credits and necessary funds within the country is crucial for water supply and water treatment projects and plans. The financing of these projects also faces challenges due to the impact of sanctions on Iran’s economy.
Now, projects and plans are being implemented to refine water, supply clean drinking water, transfer water to dry areas, create water reserves, and convert salt water into drinking water in both developed and developing countries. These plans require technical expertise, facilities, and technology, which can be acquired through strong relationships and mutual cooperation, as well as extensive communication with foreign private sectors. However, the imposition of sanctions prevents the transfer of American technology to Iran, citing various reasons, including concerns about Iran’s nuclear program. Additionally, technologies with dual-use capabilities are also susceptible to sanctions. As a result, technologies aimed at environmental protection, specifically ensuring Water Security, will inevitably be affected by these extensive sanctions. In 2022, a deputy from the Iranian Department of Environment acknowledged that US sanctions have limited Iran’s access to clean and environmentally friendly technologies. Despite some internal scientific and technical initiatives, progress in this field has been hindered.[9]
For example, “Hydro panel” is one of the latest technologies for supplying drinking water, utilizing solar panels to produce clean drinking water. Currently, the United States is the global leader in this field. However, due to the sanctions, the transfer of knowledge, technology, and facilities for this high-tech solution faces obstacles, even though Iran is in great need of such technologies due to water stress.[10] While Iran may be able to address this issue through localization, this process requires significant expenses and time. Without sanctions, the transfer of these technologies would be much faster and more effective. Furthermore, if access to technology from abroad were possible, financing would still be a challenge due to the impact of sanctions.
The extent of these sanctions has even hindered the importation of various top-of-the-line water purification devices from around the world, including those that are not produced in the United States. As a result, there is a shortage of these devices and limited access to their models within the country.
Affected International Norms and Final Assessment
The principles and norms of Environmental International Law and Development International Law, such as the “Principle of Cooperation,” call on states to cooperate and provide assistance in resolving international challenges, such as Water Security. One requirement of this cooperation is that countries should refrain from creating obstacles for each other. Additionally, the “Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities” must be respected, which includes support from developed countries to developing nations in terms of technology and knowledge transfer. These principles are evident in important documents like the Stockholm Declaration[11] and the Rio Declaration[12], which are widely recognized legal principles. Therefore, the violation of these international norms by Iran can be inferred.
This writing aimed to present a general overview of the impact of unilateral sanctions on ensuring Water Security in Iran. Therefore, the removal of sanctions can address a significant portion of Iran’s challenges in this field and facilitate the effective management of water resources, as well as the acquisition of advanced technical knowledge and state-of-the-art technologies from across the globe. Iran has the right to utilize international capabilities to address its water-related issues, just as its neighbors do to a great extent.
[1]. Hamidreza nosrati, Morad Kaviani rad and Farzaneh Sasanpour, “A Foucauldian Analysis of “Water security “Concept in Terms of Political Geography and Geopolitics”, International Quarterly of Geopolitics 15, 53 (2019): 36. (In Persian)
[2]. The right to water has been recognized as a human right in the procedure of the United Nations General Assembly:
UNGA, “The human right to water and sanitation”, (adopted August 3, 2010), UN Doc A/RES/64/292.
[3]. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2020: Five years into the SDGs, prepared by WHO and UNICEF (Geneva, 2021), 46.
[4]. Human Rights Council, ‘Visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights, Alena Douhan’ (4 October 2022) UN Doc A/HRC/51/33/Add.1, para.41. [hereinafter Report of the Special Rapporteur]
[5]. “Sanctions have prevented the implementation of the water supply project to the northeast of Khuzestan”, IRNA, May 16, 2019, accessed July 17, 2024:
[6]. Report of the Special Rapporteur, para.46.
[7]. “President: The sanction cut off more than 4 billion dollars of water and electricity investment”, Javan Online, July 1, 2021, accessed July 17, 2024:
[8]. “Sanctions also affect people’s drinking water! / Parliament approved”, Entekhab, November 22, 2020, accessed July 17, 2024:
(In Persian)
[9]. “Sanctions have limited Iran’s access to technology to protect the environment”, IRNA, June 6, 2022, accessed July 18, 2024:
[10]. “Sanctions and non-entry of technology that can be a solution to drought”, Kabar Online, July 30, 2021, accessed July 18, 2024:
[11]. Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment or Stockholm Declaration, (drafted 5-16 June 1972).
[12]. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (drafted 3-14 June 1992).
